C.K. FOLLAND, T.R. KARL, K.YA. VINNIKOV
Contributors:
J.K. Angell; P. Arkin; R.G. Barry; R. Bradley; D.L. Cadet; M. Chelliah; M. Coughlan;
B. Dahlstrom; H.F. Diaz; H Flohn; C. Fu; P. Groisman; A. Gruber; S. Hastenrath;
A. Henderson-Sellers; K. Higuchi; P.D. Jones; J. Knox; G. Kukla; S. Levitus; X. Lin;
N. Nicholls; B.S. Nyenzi; J.S. Oguntoyinbo; G.B. Pant; D.E. Parker; B. Pittock;
R. Reynolds; C.F. Ropelewski; CD. Schonwiese; B. Sevruk; A. Solow; K.E. Trenberth;
P. Wadhams; W.C Wang; S. Woodruff; T. Yasunari; Z. Zeng; andX. Zhou.
Executive Summary199
7.1 Introduction201
7.2 Palaeo-Climatic Variations and Change201
7.2.1Climate of the Past 5,000,000 Years201
7.2.2Palaeo-climate Analogues for Three Warm
Epochs203
7.2.2.1Pliocene climatic optimum (3,000,000 to
4,300,000 BP)203
7.2.2.2Eemian interglacial optimum (125,000 to
130,000 years BP)204
7.2.2.3Climate of the Holocene optimum (5000 to
6000 years BP)204
7.3 The Modern Instrumental Record206
7.4 Surface Temperature Variations and Change207
7.4.1Hemispheric and Global207
7.4.1.1Land207
7.4.1.2Sea209
7.4.1.3Land and sea combined212
7.4.2 Regional, Seasonal and Diurnal Space and
Timescales214
7.4.2.1Land and sea214
7.4.2.2Seasonal variations and changes217
7.4.2.3Day-time and night-time217
7.5 Precipitation and Evaporation Variations and
Changes218
7.5.1Precipitation Over Land218
7.5.2Rainfall Over the Oceans220
7.5.3Evaporation from the Ocean Surface220
7.6 Tropospheric Variations and Change220
7.6.1 Temperature220
7.6.2 Comparisons of Recent Tropospheric and
Surface Temperature Data222
7.6.3 Moisture222
7.7 Sub-Surface Ocean Temperature and Salinity
Variations222
7.8 Variations and Changes in the Cryosphere223
7.8.1Snow Cover223
7.8.2Sea Ice Extent and Thickness224
7.8.3 Land Ice (Mountain Glaciers)225
7.8.4 Permafrost225
7.9 Variations and Changes in Atmospheric
Circulation225
7.9.1El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Influences226
7.9.2 The North Atlantic228
7.9.3 The North Pacific229
7.9.4 Southern Hemisphere229
7.10 Cloudiness230
7.10.1Cloudiness Over Land230
7.10.2 Cloudiness Over the Oceans230
7.11 Changes of Climate Variability and Climatic
Extremes230
7.11.1 Temperature231
7.11.2Droughts and Floods232
7.11.3 Tropical Cyclones232
7.11.4 Temporales of Central America232
7.12 Conclusions233
References23
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